The Arab Spring: 5 Years on

In early 2011, a wave of protests spread across the Middle East. Large numbers of demonstrators took to the streets to express frustration with ageing and corrupt dictators, under whom unemployment and poverty were widespread. Prices were rising, police abuse and torture were rampant and the grip on freedom of speech was tightening.

Thousands agreed they wanted change, but each country had different ideas for how this change would be brought about. In Jordan and Morocco, protestors called for reform under the existing monarchies. In Egypt and Tunisia, demonstrators called on the president to stand down.

Five years have passed since those protests erupted. The Syrian conflict has entered its fifth year and Bashar Al-Assad is still President. Egypt is under military control and its citizens face an unprecedented crackdown. Morocco and the Gulf countries, meanwhile, have largely weathered the storm.

Middle East Monitor takes a look at the Arab Spring countries five years on.

What they said before their fall...

Egypt

25 Jan 2011 First protest started
#Jan25 Click hashtag to view tweets

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Timeline of events:

  • 25 January 2011 - Tens of thousands of Egyptians take to the streets to demand the removal of President Hosni Mubarak.
  • 28 Jan 2011 - Authorities shut down the internet in an attempt to silence dissent.
  • 11 February 2011 - Mubarak resigns.
  • 5 March 2011 - Protestors storm the headquarters of Egypt's State Security Services.
  • 3 August 2011 - Mubarak's trial begins where he faces charges of corruption.
  • 28 Nov 2011 - Egyptians vote in the first elections since the ouster of Mubarak.
  • 10 May 2012 - Candidates take part in the first televised debate in Egypt's history.
  • 24 June 2012 - Morsi wins Egyptian presidency.
  • 3 July 2013 - Egypt's military chief announces that Mohamed Morsi has been replaced by Adly Mansour.
  • 21 August 2013 - Egyptian court orders the release of former president Hosni Mubarak.
  • 8 June 2014 - Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi inaugurated as Egypt's eighth president.

Pre-Arab Spring:

The Free Officers Movement, a group of army officers, overthrew the British-installed monarchy in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Since then all of Egypt's presidents have been members of the movement, until Mohammed Morsi was elected on 24 June 2012.

Leader at the time of protest: Hosni Mubarak

Hosni Mubarak was sworn-in as President of Egypt in October 1981 after Anwar Sadat was assassinated. Under Mubarak the country remained under martial law. Unemployment and poverty were widespread, as was corruption, police torture and abuse. Freedom of press and speech was limited. After 30 years in power, Mubarak was ousted on 11 February 2011 after an 18-day uprising during which protestors demanded he step down.

846+ people killed during the period of protests

During the 18 day uprising, 846 people were killed.

People arrested

Over 12,000 civilians were brought before military tribunals between 25 January 2011 and 30 June 2012.

Types of weapons/tools of oppression used during protests

Live ammunition, tear gas, water cannons, rubber bullets, rocks, men on horse and camel back charged into the crowds and whipped the protesters.

Refugees and displaced persons

As a result of the crackdown on all members of the opposition and the press in Egypt many have fled the country. Exact figures are not available.

Current status of the country:

On 3 July 2013, the military deposed President Mohammed Morsi, Egypt’s first freely elected President, who has since been sentenced to death. The coup was led by Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi, who is now President. Sisi has led an unprecedented crackdown on opposition to his rule and arrested, tortured, sentenced to death and disappeared thousands of secularists and leftists, coming down particularly severely on members of the Muslim Brotherhood.

Iraq

12 Feb 2011 First protest started
#IraqiSpring Click hashtag to view tweets

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Timeline of events:

  • 20 May 2006 - First permanent Iraqi government lead by Nouri al-Maliki of the Islamic Dawa Party is sworn in, replacing the Iraqi transition government.
  • September 2006 - Anbar Awakening. Sunni tribes form an alliance of the “Sons of Iraq” to fight and defeat Al-Qaeda militants.
  • 2007 - Iraqi central government embarks on dismantling the “Sons of Iraq”.
  • February 2011 - First demonstrations since the Arab Spring began happen in Iraq in February. Protestors gather in Baghdad and across other cities to protest corruption within the Nouri al-Maliki government. On the “Day of Rage” protest 45 people are killed.
  • 18 December 2011 - US withdraws its military forces from Iraq. Protests continue throughout 2011 and into 2012.
  • 19 December 2012 - Raid targeting prominent Sunni leader and Iraq’s Minister of Finance Rafi al-Issawi leads to the arrest of his bodyguards.
  • 21 December 2012 - Protests begin in Fallujah and throughout Sunni Arab parts of the country. Protests are held throughout 2012 and 2013.
  • 23 April 2013 - Gun battles in northern town Hawija where at least 42 people were killed, 39 of them civilians, and more than 100 wounded.
  • May 2013 – A series of deadly bombings and shootings strike central and northern parts of Iraq. At least 449 people are killed.
  • 28 December 2013 - Arrest and dismantling of Ramadi Camp. Hundreds of security personnel descend on the Ramadi protest camp, where 300 to 400 Sunnis were protesting. 17 people are killed.
  • 4-10 June 2014 - Daesh soldiers fighting in Syria take over Mosul by defeating the Iraqi Army.
  • 14 August 2014 - In the face of growing calls from world leaders and members of his own party Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki steps down.

Pre-Arab Spring:

In 1958 military officers launched a coup and overthrew the British installed monarchy. In 1963 the Arab nationalist Ba'ath Party seized power and in 1979 Saddam Hussein succeeded Ahmed Hassan Bakr. Saddam remained president of Iraq until the American-led invasion in 2003, when he was captured and later hanged. Nour al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006, stood down in 2014 and was succeeded by Haider Al-Abadi.

Leader at the time of protest: Nouri al-Maliki

Nouri al-Maliki was the Prime Minister of Iraq from 2006 to 2014. He is secretary-general of the Islamic Dawa Party and is currently the Vice President of Iraq. Al-Maliki had been in exile since 1979 and returned in April 2013 following the toppling of Saddam's regime.

45+ people killed during the period of protests

There were 45 deaths in Iraq during the 2011 protests.

People arrested

Hundreds were arrested during Iraq’s Arab Spring. Exact figures are not known.

Types of weapons/tools of oppression used during protests

Helicopters, machine guns, armed vehicles, military.

Refugees and displaced persons

Prior to the Arab Spring uprising there were approximately 1.5 million Iraqi refugees.

Current status of the country:

Since taking over Mosul in June 2014, Daesh controls vast swathes of Iraqi territory near the Syrian border. Since 8 August 2014, a US-led coalition has launched thousands of air strikes against Daesh targets in Iraq. The UK launched its first air strikes in Iraq on 30 September 2014. Following elections in 2014 Haider al-Abadi became the new Prime Minister.

Libya

15 Feb 2011 First protest started
#Feb17 Click hashtag to view tweets

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Timeline of events:

  • 15 February 2011 - Protests erupt in Benghazi after the arrest of Fathi Terbil, a prominent government critic and lawyer. Around 2,000 people take part in overnight protest. Security forces responded with lethal levels of violence.
  • 17 February 2011 - Libya's "Day of Rage" brings thousands of people into the streets to protest against Gaddafi's rule. Gaddafi forces respond by firing live ammunition at the crowds, allegedly killing more than a dozen demonstrators.
  • 20 February 2011 - After several days of fighting, anti-Gaddafi rebels seize control of Libya's second city. Cities further east, including Baida and Tobruk, are already under opposition control at this point.
  • 26 February 2011- The United Nations Security Council passes an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and his inner circle, placing travel restrictions on them and referring the matter to the International Criminal Court for investigation.
  • 5 March 2011 - A group of rebel leaders calling itself the National Transitional Council issues a statement declaring itself the sole representative of Libya.
  • 19 March 2011 - After a debate, the UNSC votes to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. French jets begin bombing the country hours after the resolution is passed.
  • 15 April 2011 - Gaddafi forces withdraw from Misrata.
  • 21 August 2011 - Opposition fighters enter Tripoli.
  • 16 September 2011 - National Transitional Council (NTC) is recognised by the UN as the legal representative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafi government.
  • 20 October 2011 - Gaddafi is captured and killed attempting to escape from Sirte.
  • 23 October 2011 - The NTC declares the liberation of Libya and the war is considered officially over.

Pre-Arab Spring:

Muammar Gaddafi ruled Libya from 1969 when he seized power through a coup and overthrew the monarchy. He was killed on 20 October 2011, after having ruled the country for 42 years. This was eight months after anti-government protests began.

Leader at the time of protest: Muammar Gaddafi

Muammar Gaddafi seized control of the Libyan government in 1969 in a bloodless military coup. He ruled as an authoritarian dictator for more than 40 years before he was overthrown in 2011. In his early days of rule, his views were largely influenced by pan-Arabism. Opposed to US interests, Gaddafi won little support from Washington and the West. This only got worse after the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am jumbo jet over Lockerbie, Scotland, which killed 270 people. A series of US sanctions were imposed on Libya after Gaddafi's initial refusal to hand over two Libyan suspects. Libya eventually acknowledged responsibility, agreeing to compensate the relatives of the victims, helping Gaddafi ease back into the international community.

6,109+ people killed during the period of protests

There is a lack of reliable data regarding the death toll. Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project listed 6,109 fatalities from 15 February to 23 October 2011, of which 1,319 died prior to NATO intervention. The Uppsala Conflict Data Programme, a public data resource that includes information on different types of organised violence, reported that between 1,914 and 3,466 people were killed during the 2011 fighting.

People arrested

There are few accessible figures on the number of political prisoners arrested during the uprising in Libya. However, a Telegraph article published at the time quoted the National Transition Council saying that more than 20,000 people had been rounded up and held in detention centres in the first six weeks of the uprising. The Red Cross was routinely prevented access to Gaddafi’s “hidden prisons”. A disused tobacco factory is one of the most notorious places of detention. Inmates were reported to have to stand 10 deep and were fed just half a loaf of bread and a bottle of water a day. Torture was common place.

Types of weapons/tools of oppression used during protests

When protests broke out in Libya, the government's security forces responded by opening fire on the protesters. As the protests grew, Gaddafi pledged to chase down the "cockroaches" and "rats" who had taken up arms against him. A brutal conflict began, during which, according to Human Rights Watch, pro-Gaddafi forces indiscriminately shelled civilian areas, arrested thousands of protesters and others suspected of supporting the opposition, holding many in secret detention, and carrying out summary executions. He reportedly hired mercenaries from other African countries to brutally control the population.

Current status of the country:

Libya has been in conflict since the NATO-backed revolt that overthrew Gaddafi. Armed groups allied to Libya's rival governments - one a militia-backed self-declared administration that took power in Tripoli after the internationally recognised government of Prime Minister Abdullah Al-Thinni fled to Tobruk, in eastern Libya - are locked in a battle for control of the oil-rich nation. Members of Libya's warring factions signed a peace deal in December that could pave the way for British troops to help them fight an attempted take-over of the country by Daesh, which has gained a foothold in the country with the help of the instability of the civil war. But, whether the deal will be able to work in practice remains to be seen.

Syria

18 Mar 2011 First protest started
#SyrianRevolution Click hashtag to view tweets

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Timeline of events:

  • 18 March 2011 - Protests break out in response to the arrest and torture of 15 school children in Daraa. Some protestors are killed. Protests spread.
  • 30 March 2011 - Bashar Al-Assad addresses the nation for the first time since the protests began but fails to give the people what they demand.
  • 1 April 2011 - Protesters turn out by the thousands in several towns and cities including the capital, Damascus. This was the first of what became weekly mass anti-government demonstrations across Syria. They were met with much violence.
  • 21 April 2011 – Al-Assad issues decrees to lift the state of emergency, abolish the state security court and to recognise and regulate the right to peaceful protest.
  • 22 April 2011 - Government forces continue to crack down on protests killing at least 110 people who participated in mass gatherings. This becomes the deadliest day of protests so far.
  • 18 May 2011 - The United States imposes sanctions against Al-Assad and six other senior Syrian officials.
  • July 2011 – The Free Syrian Army is formed with the stated aim of ending the regime.
  • 8 August 2011 - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain recall their ambassadors to Syria.
  • 18 August 2011 - Both the United States and the European Union call for Al-Assad to step down.
  • 4 October 2011 - China and Russia use their veto power at the UN to block potential sanctions on Syria.
  • 14 November 2011 - Jordan's King Abdullah calls on Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad to resign.
  • 12 November 2011 - Syria is suspended from the Arab League.
  • 22 November 2011 - Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan calls on Al-Assad to resign.
  • 13 December 2011 - UN says more than 5,000 people have been killed in Syria's conflict.
  • 6 January 2012 - General Mustafa Ahmad Al-Sheikh defects to join the Free Syrian Army.
  • 16 February 2012 - UN General Assembly passes a non-binding resolution calling for the resignation of Al-Assad.
  • 12 June 2012 - UN's Herve Ladsous calls the crisis in Syria a full-scale civil war.

Pre-Arab Spring:

Syria gained independence from France in 1946. A number of coups rocked the country until the Ba'ath Party Military Committee seized power in 1963. Hafez Al-Assad initiated a coup in 1970, what he labelled "the corrective movement", and remained president of the country for the next 30 years.

His son Bashar took over as head of the Assad dynasty in 2000 when his father died, where he remains today.

Leader at the time of protest: Bashar Al-Assad

Bashar Al-Assad took over power from his father Hafez Al-Assad in 2000. Hafez had led Syria for three decades. While in his early days of leadership hundreds of political prisoners were released and the first independent newspapers for more than three decades began publishing. The Damascus Spring, as it became known, was short lived and he soon returned to his father’s method of ruthless suppression to keep hold of power.

5,000+ people killed during the period of protests

In the first nine months of the uprising, the UN estimated that the death toll exceeded 5,000 people. Navi Pillay, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, estimated at the time that 300 children were amongst those killed.

People arrested

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported in 2015 that an estimated 200,000 Syrians have been arrested by government forces since the uprising began in 2011. Nearly 13,000 Syrians, including 108 children, have been tortured to death in prison.

Types of weapons/tools of oppression used during protests

Security forces used water cannons and teargas against the protesters before moving onto live fire. In the early days of the uprising, security forces killed hundreds of protesters and arbitrarily arrested thousands, subjecting many of them to brutal torture in detention. The security forces routinely prevented the wounded from getting medical assistance and imposed sieges depriving the population of basic services.

Refugees and displaced persons

According to the UN, as of September 2015 more than half of all Syrians have been forced to flee their homes, with 7.6 million displaced within Syria and over four million living as refugees in neighbouring countries.

Current status of the country:

It is nearly five years since the first protests in Syria. The United Nations declared the Syria conflict a civil war in June 2012. Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad still clings to power although his control over the country has significantly waned. Today, over half of the country’s population has fled and the death toll continues to rise. The UK has recently joined coalition efforts to bomb the extremist group Daesh, which has conquered alarming amounts of territory in a small amount of time.

Tunisia

17 Dec 2010 First protest started
#JasmineRevolution Click hashtag to view tweets

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Timeline of events:

  • 17 December 2010 - Mohamed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old street vendor, sets himself on fire in front of a local municipal office in the central town of Sidi Bouzid after police confiscate his wares. Protests begin in Sidi Bouzid that same day, before spreading across the country.
  • 20 December 2010 - Tunisian development minister travels to Sidi Bouzid to announce a new $10 million employment programme in an attempt to end the protests, but to no avail.
  • 24 December 2010 - As protests spread to other cities in the Sidi Bouzid governorate, security forces and police use live bullets leading to the killing of Mohammed Amari, the first fatality of the revolution.
  • 27 December 2010 - The protests continue to spread across the country and 1,000 demonstrators come out in the capital city of Tunis.
  • 28 December 2010 – In his first official reaction to the protests, Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali condemns in a televised address the "use of violence in the streets by a minority of extremists", and warned that protests are “unacceptable” and will have a negative impact on Tunisian economy. He also said that the law will be applied "in all firmness" to punish the protesters.
  • The demonstrations continue to grow and lawyers hold a rally of their own outside the government's palace in the Tunisian capital.
  • 2 January 2011 - "Anonymous" announces Operation Tunisia in solidarity with the protestors by attacking a number of Tunisian government websites.
  • 3 January 2011 - Clashes between protesters and security forces intensify as police use rubber bullets and fire tear gas canisters on peaceful demonstrators. The protesters attack local offices of the ruling party in response.
  • 7 January 2011 - Tunisian authorities arrest a group of bloggers, journalists and activists.
  • 13 January 2011 - Ben Ali pledges major reforms and announces that he will not run for re-election in 2014. He promises more freedoms and investigations into the killings of protesters during demonstrations.
  • 14 January 2011 - Ben Ali declares a state of emergency and fires the country's government amid violent clashes between security forces and protesters. Ben Ali flees with his immediate family to Saudi Arabia, and Mohammed Ghannouchi, the prime minister, announces that he will be assuming the role of interim president.
  • 15 January 2011 - Tunisia's constitutional court rules that Fouad Mebazaa, the speaker of parliament, will be interim president, not Ghannouchi, who is then tasked with forming a new coalition government.
  • 17 January 2011 - A new unity government is announced and is then criticised by opposition leaders in exile for favouring members of the old guard.
  • 18 January 2011 - Demonstrators take to the streets to protest line-up of the new government, while other opposition ministers threaten to quit. As a result, Ghannouchi and Mebazaa resign from Ben Ali's Constitutional Democratic Rally party (RCD).
  • 19 January 2011 - Prosecutors in Tunisia open an inquiry into the assets of Ben Ali and his extended family.
  • 20 January 2011 - The central committee of RCD is dissolved as all ministers in the interim government quit the party, though they remain in their cabinet posts. The interim government announces that all banned parties will be legalised and all political prisoners will be released.
  • 21 January 2011 – This was the first day of a three-day period of national mourning.
  • 23 January 2011 - Protests take place on the final day of mourning, and protesters march towards the capital city demanding the resignation of Ghannouchi and other former RCD ministers who remained in the interim government.
  • 26 January 2011 - Tunisia asks Interpol to help arrest Ben Ali.
  • 20 February 2011 - Protests demand the formation of a constituent assembly.
  • 27 Feb 2011 - Ghannouchi announces his resignation amid further clashes between police and protesters and Mebazaa names the former government minister Beji Caid-Essebsi as Ghannouchi's replacement.

Pre-Arab Spring:

Habib Bourguiba led the struggle for Tunisian independence from France, which was achieved in 1956. Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali succeeded Bourguiba in 1987 after having doctors declare Bourguiba medically unfit to rule. On 14 January 2011 Ben Ali fled to Saudi Arabia; demonstrators had asked him to stand down during protests in the country that had been ongoing since December 2010.

Leader at the time of protest: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali ruled Tunisia for 23 years before stepping down in January 2011 and fleeing to Saudi Arabia with his immediate family amid a wave of protests that sparked what became known as the "Arab Spring".

Ben Ali was born in 1936, near the city of Sousse, and was, in his youth, part of the resistance to French colonial rule, for which he was imprisoned. After completing his education in France and the US, he served in the military and the diplomatic service in Poland before becoming Tunisia's interior minister in 1986. A year later, he became the prime minister and later launched a coup against Tunisia's first post-independence leader, President Habib Bourguiba, becoming president himself.

As president, Ben Ali was recognised for delivering stability and economic growth and for having a progressive stance on women's rights. However, high youth unemployment levels increased under his rule and he was widely criticised for suppressing political freedoms. Ben Ali promised transition towards democracy, but he was elected twice unopposed and the constitution was changed twice so he could continue to serve. Even after multi-party presidential elections were introduced in 1999, Ben Ali still won huge majorities and elections were deemed unfair.

300+ people killed during the period of protests

According to the United Nations, at least 300 people were killed during the Tunisian uprising.

People arrested

During the protests, dozens of protesters, activists, and journalists were arrested. On 20 January 2011, the new interim government announced that all political prisoners would be freed. It also recognised all previously banned parties, with the exception of Hizb ut-Tahrir and a few other parties.

Types of weapons/tools of oppression used during protests

Uprisings saw police, armed security forces and snipers crackdown on protesters using rubber and live bullets, tear gas canisters, and water cannons that were used to try to disperse the crowds.

Refugees and displaced persons

No refugees. Members of banned political parties in exile were able to come back to Tunisia after being banned during the time of Ben Ali.

Current status of the country:

After the fall of Ben Ali on 14 January, there were three interim governments before the first democratic elections took place in 2011. In the first free and fair elections, leading to the formation of the first democratic government in late 2011, the Ennahda party won 37% of the overall vote and made a power sharing agreement with left-wing socialists and secularists from the Congress for the Republic and Ettakatol parties, with veteran Tunisian politician Moncef Marzouki being appointed as president and Mustapha Ben Jafar taking control of the Constituent Assembly. In turn, Hamadi Jebali, then of Ennahda, was appointed prime minister.

Nidaa Tounes, a secularist political party founded in 2012, now rules the country after having won a plurality of seats in the October 2014 parliamentary election. Its founding leader Beji Caid Essebsi is now acting president in Tunisia after being elected in 2014. The ruling Nidaa Tounes party recently lost its majority in the Tunisian Parliament and faces an internal split after 31 Nidaa Tounes deputies resigned in the last couple of months.

Yemen

27 Jan 2011 First protest started
#SupportYemen Click hashtag to view tweets

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Timeline of events:

  • 27 January 2011 - The first official protest took place in Sana’a, where there were at least 16,000 demonstrators. They rejected Saleh’s call for reform and demanded that he steps down completely.
  • February 2011 - Prominent women’s rights activist Tawakkol Karman called for a day of rage in Sana’a. At least 20,000 people participated, along with protests in Aden.
  • Mid- February - The protests continued and began to increase in violence by mid-February. The movement also gained the support of major tribes.
  • 27 February 2012 - After much violence and resistance, Saleh stepped down through a Gulf Cooperation Council-brokered deal which granted him immunity from persecution and allowed him to stay in Yemen.

Pre-Arab Spring:

The Republic of Yemen was founded in 1990 when South Yemen, controlled by the British until 1967, and North Yemen, merged. Ali Abdullah Saleh ruled the country from 1990 to 2012, having ruled North Yemen for 12 years before that. In February 2012 Saleh stood down after 33 years in power, the fourth leader to be overthrown in the region after protests.

Leader at the time of protest: Ali Abdullah Saleh

Ali Abdullah Saleh was president for 33 years. Pre-reunification, he was president of North Yemen from 1978. During his rule post-1994 unification, he was well known for suppressing southern Yemenis with his bureaucracy. He imposed tight restrictions on freedom of speech and was financially corrupt. Despite Yemen being the poorest Arab country, Saleh’s worth is $60bn, making him amongst the richest dictators in modern history.

2,000+ people killed during the period of protests

2000 people killed during the protests.

People arrested

Number of Political Prisoners since protests have started The number of prisoners is estimated to be in the thousands, although a specific figure is not available.

Types of weapons/tools of oppression used during protests

Tear gas, live ammunition, tanks, tasers, batons, knives and rifles

Refugees and displaced persons

This figure is unknown as it is constantly fluctuating as the conflict progresses.

Current status of the country:

There is currently a war raging in Yemen which aims to get rid of the Houthis, a rebel movement which took over Sana’a, who Saleh has aligned with. Tribes and local resistance are now at the forefront of the fight against Houthi control; with backing from a Saudi coalition. There is currently a humanitarian crisis in place. An estimated 80% of Yemenis are in need of at least one form of aid. Yemen’s third most important city, Taiz, is now under a Houthi/Saleh siege. Al-Qaeda and Daesh are also growing in southern Yemen, due to a security vacuum.