Iran under the Mongols: Ilkhanid Administrators and Persian Notables in Fars

In the 13th century, the Mongols under the formidable leadership of Genghis Khan swept across the vast steppes of Central Asia, bringing unprecedented devastation as they advanced towards the Middle East. Their conquest culminated in the catastrophic sack of Baghdad in 1258, which led to the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate and plunged much of the Islamic world into turmoil.

For Persia in particular, Mongol domination was described by chroniclers and historians, past and present as “one of the darkest periods in Iranian history.” Cities were obliterated and populations decimated. However, as Denise Aigle reveals in her latest work Iran under the Mongols: Ilkhanid Administrators and Persian Notables in Fars, this period was not merely one of destruction and despair.

Aigle’s earlier research had already challenged the one-dimensional view of Mongol rule in Iran, suggesting that the Mongols, over time, became more than mere conquerors; they gradually integrated into Persian society, adopting and adapting local administrative practices. Now, with twenty years of additional scholarship, the author has updated her work, further refining her thesis and offering a more detailed understanding of the Mongol rulers and their Iranian subjects, with a particular focus on the province of Fars with its esteemed capital Shiraz.

Unlike the transformative Arab conquests of the 7th century, the Mongol invasion, while wreaking havoc, did not have a profound impact on “the cultural and religious foundations of Iranian society,” as Aigle notes: “Iran still remained a Muslim country even after decades of non-Muslim rule, since the Mongols did not impose a new religion.”

The central argument in the book is that Mongol governance, while initially characterised by brutality, eventually led to the establishment of a dual administrative system that involved both Mongol and Persian officials. Under the Ilkhanate (a semi-autonomous state under the greater Mongol Empire) a dual judicial system was also founded, one that applied Islamic law and Mongolian law.

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It was due to the nomadic rulers’ lack of administrative experience, that such an administrative system came about. By concentrating on Fars, Aigle sheds light on the complexities of local administration and contrasts them with neighbouring provinces like Kirman. According to the author, the economic decline in Fars during this period was not solely due to Mongol misrule, but was also influenced significantly by the self-serving actions of local elites, who often contributed to the region’s instability.

These occurrences bear striking similarities to the Mamluks and their rule; they were the slave-soldiers who would eventually reverse the Mongol expansion at the fateful Battle of Ayn Jalut in present-day Palestine. Iran under the Mongols… is filled with betrayals and court intrigues, where the reader encounters numerous cases of “fratricidal struggles” and “interfamilial hostilities” among the various rival dynasties governed by their Mongol overlords.

The broader cultural and religious impact of Mongol rule in Iran is also explored. Aigle refutes the simplistic view of the Mongols as destroyers of Islamic culture, showing instead how they eventually became patrons of Islamic art, architecture and learning. Indeed, several Mongol rulers converted to Islam, such as Ghazan Khan, the founder of the Islamic Ilkhanate.

The intriguing personality of Ghazan’s brother, Oljeitu, is mentioned in parts by Aigle. However, a more detailed discussion of his impact and influence would, I think, have been beneficial. After undergoing several religious conversions, Oljeitu ultimately embraced Twelver Shia Islam, becoming the first ruler to establish it as the state religion in Iran. He even harboured ambitions to construct a large mausoleum to serve as a shrine for Imam Ali and Imam Hussein, planning to transfer their remains from their resting places in Iraq. However, these plans never materialised, and Oljeitu was ultimately buried in the mausoleum himself. These details are missing from the book, but the author does note that Majd Al-Din Ismail Fali, a highly respected religious authority, challenged “Oljeitu’s imposition of Shi’ism as the state religion.”

In short, the reader discovers that the Mongols maintained their control and sovereignty over the wealthy province of Fars primarily through taxation. Yet, against this backdrop, the book offers a rich and detailed account of the political manoeuvrings and power struggles among the local populace during a period of significant social upheaval and unrest.

With a dizzying array of names and personalities to contend with, the balanced perspective provided by the author offers a deeper understanding of Mongol governance in Iran. This makes the book essential reading for anyone interested in this pivotal era of Islamic history following the fall of the Abbasids.

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